Cherish Madu - Revision history

imported>Psych202 at 21:18, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:18:56Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:18, 7 June 2013
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	Radioactive isotropes need to be created by cyclotrons either on-site or near the hospitals using PET. This process is very costly. Moreover, because the positron has to travel before it collides with an electron to produce gamma-rays, temporal resolution is very low. It takes close to a minute for the concentration of gamma-rays to accumulate into a reliable signal.		Radioactive isotropes need to be created by cyclotrons either on-site or near the hospitals using PET. This process is very costly. Moreover, because the positron has to travel before it collides with an electron to produce gamma-rays, temporal resolution is very low. It takes close to a minute for the concentration of gamma-rays to accumulate into a reliable signal.
	Also, PET is a somewhat invasive procedure because it requires the injection of radioactive molecules into the bloodstream ~~(CITE 37)~~. However, the dose of radiation is reduced in isotopes with short half-lives.		Also, PET is a somewhat invasive procedure because it requires the injection of radioactive molecules into the bloodstream <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[2]]]</sup>. However, the dose of radiation is reduced in isotopes with short half-lives.

	=Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation=		=Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation=
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	'''Disadvantages'''		'''Disadvantages'''

	TMS has low spatial specificity and little is known about the mechanistic processes underlying TMS and its benefits. Also TMS can cause seizures, although this is a rare occurrence ~~(CITE 9)~~.		TMS has low spatial specificity and little is known about the mechanistic processes underlying TMS and its benefits. Also TMS can cause seizures, although this is a rare occurrence <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[3]]]</sup>.

	=Optogenetics=		=Optogenetics=
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	Optogenetics combines techniques from genetics and optics to deepen our understanding of neural circuitry and how it relates to behavior. Optogenetics is a tool that makes use of microbial opsins that can be activated by light. For the most part, viruses are engineered with specific promoters that drive expression of ospin genes and are injected into mice or rats.		Optogenetics combines techniques from genetics and optics to deepen our understanding of neural circuitry and how it relates to behavior. Optogenetics is a tool that makes use of microbial opsins that can be activated by light. For the most part, viruses are engineered with specific promoters that drive expression of ospin genes and are injected into mice or rats.

	Optogenetics has also allowed us to more fully understand some of the neurological disorders that plague our population today. 28% of the American population is afflicted with some kind of fear or anxiety disorder, 13% are afflicted with depression, and an ever increasing number have an addiction problem, whether it be to narcotics or gambling ~~(CITE)~~. Through the use of optogenetics and rodent anxiety models, a specific population of amygdala synapses that directly affect anxious behavior was identified. Scientists were also able to find an inhibitory microcircuit that prevents fear typed behavior. These findings are all promising for our understanding of anxiety and fear disorders.		Optogenetics has also allowed us to more fully understand some of the neurological disorders that plague our population today. 28% of the American population is afflicted with some kind of fear or anxiety disorder, 13% are afflicted with depression, and an ever increasing number have an addiction problem, whether it be to narcotics or gambling <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[4]]]</sup>. Through the use of optogenetics and rodent anxiety models, a specific population of amygdala synapses that directly affect anxious behavior was identified. Scientists were also able to find an inhibitory microcircuit that prevents fear typed behavior. These findings are all promising for our understanding of anxiety and fear disorders.

	'''Advantages'''		'''Advantages'''
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	'''Overview'''		'''Overview'''

	Electroencephalograpy (EEG) recordings measure electric activity in the brain through surface electrodes that are placed along the scalp. These surface electrodes measure voltage, and the difference in voltage between the surface electrodes and a reference electrode (placed elsewhere on the head) are amplified, digitized, and then recorded ~~(CITE 8)~~. EEG does not measure the elecric potential of a single neuron ~~(CITE 9)~~. Instead it measures the dendritic field potentials of groups of neurons. In this way, the signal becomes large enough for EEG to detect. Event-related potentials (ERPs) are extracted from the EEG signal to relate electrical activity to neural function. ERPs can do this because they have the advantage of linking electrical activity with time.		Electroencephalograpy (EEG) recordings measure electric activity in the brain through surface electrodes that are placed along the scalp. These surface electrodes measure voltage, and the difference in voltage between the surface electrodes and a reference electrode (placed elsewhere on the head) are amplified, digitized, and then recorded <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[5]]]</sup>. EEG does not measure the elecric potential of a single neuron <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[6]]]</sup>. Instead it measures the dendritic field potentials of groups of neurons. In this way, the signal becomes large enough for EEG to detect. Event-related potentials (ERPs) are extracted from the EEG signal to relate electrical activity to neural function. ERPs can do this because they have the advantage of linking electrical activity with time.

	EEG has many functional uses in assessing the global state of the brain. Clinically, EEG is used to differentiate epileptic seizures from fainting and movement disorders ~~(CITE 2)~~. EEG is also used to diagnose coma and brain death.		EEG has many functional uses in assessing the global state of the brain. Clinically, EEG is used to differentiate epileptic seizures from fainting and movement disorders <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[7]]]</sup>. EEG is also used to diagnose coma and brain death.

	'''Advantages'''		'''Advantages'''

	EEG is a non-invasive technique as it does not require surgery or the injection of hazardous materials. ERPs also have excellent temporal specificity, within milliseconds ~~(CITE 33)~~.		EEG is a non-invasive technique as it does not require surgery or the injection of hazardous materials. ERPs also have excellent temporal specificity, within milliseconds <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[8]]]</sup>.

	'''Disadvantages'''		'''Disadvantages'''
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	Like PET, Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) results in the imaging of active brain locations. FMRI, however measures blood flow using the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) contrast (CITE). BOLD contrasting takes advantage of the fact that oxyhemoglobin (oxygen-rich) and deoxyhemoglobin (oxygen-poor) have differing magnetic resonance signals, hence the contrast. Functioning areas of the brain require more oxygen and thus more blood flow that non-active parts of the brain.		Like PET, Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) results in the imaging of active brain locations. FMRI, however measures blood flow using the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) contrast (CITE). BOLD contrasting takes advantage of the fact that oxyhemoglobin (oxygen-rich) and deoxyhemoglobin (oxygen-poor) have differing magnetic resonance signals, hence the contrast. Functioning areas of the brain require more oxygen and thus more blood flow that non-active parts of the brain.

	FMRI has spurred the creation of companies that market lie-detectors based upon the imaging technique. Such companies claim that the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) is more active when individuals are planning to or contemplating a lie ~~(CITE 64)~~.		FMRI has spurred the creation of companies that market lie-detectors based upon the imaging technique. Such companies claim that the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) is more active when individuals are planning to or contemplating a lie <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[9]]]</sup>.

	'''Advantages'''		'''Advantages'''

imported>Psych202 at 21:16, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:16:30Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:16, 7 June 2013
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	'''Overview'''		'''Overview'''

	Positron emission tomography (PET) is a three-dimensional brain imaging technique that takes advantage of changes in metabolism to localize brain activity and functional processes in the body ~~(CITE~~ 1). The most active parts of the brain use more metabolic processes than do relatively inactive parts of the brain and PET is able to track this metabolic flow. Flourine-18 or oxygen-15, the most commonly used radioactive tracer isotopes, is injected into the bloodstream where it disperses to more active parts of the brain. Inside the brain, the radioactive tracer decays into a positron and an electron. When the positron collides with an electron, two gammas rays are produced. The accumulation of these pairs of gamma rays is measured by gamma-ray detectors which are placed all around the subject's head. Computer analyses construct the radioactive tracer concentration into three-dimensional images. PET is often combined with CT or MRI scans for superimposition of the images of concentration onto anatomic images of the subject's brain.		Positron emission tomography (PET) is a three-dimensional brain imaging technique that takes advantage of changes in metabolism to localize brain activity and functional processes in the body <sup>[[Cherish_Madu\|[1]]]</sup>. The most active parts of the brain use more metabolic processes than do relatively inactive parts of the brain and PET is able to track this metabolic flow. Flourine-18 or oxygen-15, the most commonly used radioactive tracer isotopes, is injected into the bloodstream where it disperses to more active parts of the brain. Inside the brain, the radioactive tracer decays into a positron and an electron. When the positron collides with an electron, two gammas rays are produced. The accumulation of these pairs of gamma rays is measured by gamma-ray detectors which are placed all around the subject's head. Computer analyses construct the radioactive tracer concentration into three-dimensional images. PET is often combined with CT or MRI scans for superimposition of the images of concentration onto anatomic images of the subject's brain.

	PET is not only used in neuroimaging. It also has applications in oncology and pharmacology. Flourodeoxyglucose (FDG) is primarily used in oncology because of its ability to track glucose metabolism in cancer tissues. Flourodeoxyglucose flourine-18 (FDG-PET) is also used to detect patients at risk for stroke in cardiology.		PET is not only used in neuroimaging. It also has applications in oncology and pharmacology. Flourodeoxyglucose (FDG) is primarily used in oncology because of its ability to track glucose metabolism in cancer tissues. Flourodeoxyglucose flourine-18 (FDG-PET) is also used to detect patients at risk for stroke in cardiology.

imported>Psych202: /* References */

2013-06-07T21:15:36Z

References

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:15, 7 June 2013
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	=References=		=References=
	Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.		#Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.
			#Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483
	Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483		#Rossi, S; Hallett, M; Rossini, PM; Pascual-Leone, A; Safety of TMS Consensus Group (2009). "Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research". Clinical Neurophysiology 120 (12): 2008–2039. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.08.016. PMID 19833552
			#Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.
	Rossi, S; Hallett, M; Rossini, PM; Pascual-Leone, A; Safety of TMS Consensus Group (2009). "Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research". Clinical Neurophysiology 120 (12): 2008–2039. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.08.016. PMID 19833552		#Tatum, W. O., Husain, A. M., Benbadis, S. R. (2008) "Handbook of EEG Interpretation" Demos Medical Publishing.
			#Nunez PL, Srinivasan R (1981). Electric fields of the brain: The neurophysics of EEG. Oxford University Press.
	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		#Atlas of EEG & Seizure Semiology. B. Abou-Khalil; Musilus, K.E.; Elsevier, 2006.
			#Anderson, J. (22 October 2004). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (Hardcover) (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth. p. 17. ISBN 0-7167-0110-3.
	Tatum, W. O., Husain, A. M., Benbadis, S. R. (2008) "Handbook of EEG Interpretation" Demos Medical Publishing.		#Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

	Nunez PL, Srinivasan R (1981). Electric fields of the brain: The neurophysics of EEG. Oxford University Press.

	Atlas of EEG & Seizure Semiology. B. Abou-Khalil; Musilus, K.E.; Elsevier, 2006.

	Anderson, J. (22 October 2004). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (Hardcover) (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth. p. 17. ISBN 0-7167-0110-3.

	Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

imported>Psych202 at 21:14, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:14:32Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:14, 7 June 2013
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	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.

			Tatum, W. O., Husain, A. M., Benbadis, S. R. (2008) "Handbook of EEG Interpretation" Demos Medical Publishing.

			Nunez PL, Srinivasan R (1981). Electric fields of the brain: The neurophysics of EEG. Oxford University Press.

			Atlas of EEG & Seizure Semiology. B. Abou-Khalil; Musilus, K.E.; Elsevier, 2006.

			Anderson, J. (22 October 2004). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (Hardcover) (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth. p. 17. ISBN 0-7167-0110-3.

	Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3		Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

imported>Psych202 at 21:11, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:11:46Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:11, 7 June 2013
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	Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483		Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483

			Rossi, S; Hallett, M; Rossini, PM; Pascual-Leone, A; Safety of TMS Consensus Group (2009). "Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research". Clinical Neurophysiology 120 (12): 2008–2039. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.08.016. PMID 19833552

	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.

imported>Psych202 at 21:10, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:10:54Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:10, 7 June 2013
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	=References=		=References=
	Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.		Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.

	Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483		Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483

	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.


	Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3		Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

imported>Psych202 at 21:10, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:10:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:10, 7 June 2013
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	'''Overview'''		'''Overview'''

	Positron emission tomography (PET) is a three-dimensional brain imaging technique that takes advantage of changes in metabolism to localize brain activity and functional processes in the body. The most active parts of the brain use more metabolic processes than do relatively inactive parts of the brain and PET is able to track this metabolic flow. Flourine-18 or oxygen-15, the most commonly used radioactive tracer isotopes, is injected into the bloodstream where it disperses to more active parts of the brain. Inside the brain, the radioactive tracer decays into a positron and an electron. When the positron collides with an electron, two gammas rays are produced. The accumulation of these pairs of gamma rays is measured by gamma-ray detectors which are placed all around the subject's head. Computer analyses construct the radioactive tracer concentration into three-dimensional images. PET is often combined with CT or MRI scans for superimposition of the images of concentration onto anatomic images of the subject's brain.		Positron emission tomography (PET) is a three-dimensional brain imaging technique that takes advantage of changes in metabolism to localize brain activity and functional processes in the body (CITE 1). The most active parts of the brain use more metabolic processes than do relatively inactive parts of the brain and PET is able to track this metabolic flow. Flourine-18 or oxygen-15, the most commonly used radioactive tracer isotopes, is injected into the bloodstream where it disperses to more active parts of the brain. Inside the brain, the radioactive tracer decays into a positron and an electron. When the positron collides with an electron, two gammas rays are produced. The accumulation of these pairs of gamma rays is measured by gamma-ray detectors which are placed all around the subject's head. Computer analyses construct the radioactive tracer concentration into three-dimensional images. PET is often combined with CT or MRI scans for superimposition of the images of concentration onto anatomic images of the subject's brain.

	PET is not only used in neuroimaging. It also has applications in oncology and pharmacology. Flourodeoxyglucose (FDG) is primarily used in oncology because of its ability to track glucose metabolism in cancer tissues. Flourodeoxyglucose flourine-18 (FDG-PET) is also used to detect patients at risk for stroke in cardiology.		PET is not only used in neuroimaging. It also has applications in oncology and pharmacology. Flourodeoxyglucose (FDG) is primarily used in oncology because of its ability to track glucose metabolism in cancer tissues. Flourodeoxyglucose flourine-18 (FDG-PET) is also used to detect patients at risk for stroke in cardiology.
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	Radioactive isotropes need to be created by cyclotrons either on-site or near the hospitals using PET. This process is very costly. Moreover, because the positron has to travel before it collides with an electron to produce gamma-rays, temporal resolution is very low. It takes close to a minute for the concentration of gamma-rays to accumulate into a reliable signal.		Radioactive isotropes need to be created by cyclotrons either on-site or near the hospitals using PET. This process is very costly. Moreover, because the positron has to travel before it collides with an electron to produce gamma-rays, temporal resolution is very low. It takes close to a minute for the concentration of gamma-rays to accumulate into a reliable signal.
	Also, PET is a somewhat invasive procedure because it requires the injection of radioactive molecules into the bloodstream. However, the dose of radiation is reduced in isotopes with short half-lives.		Also, PET is a somewhat invasive procedure because it requires the injection of radioactive molecules into the bloodstream (CITE 37). However, the dose of radiation is reduced in isotopes with short half-lives.

	=Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation=		=Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation=
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	=References=		=References=
	Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.		Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.
			Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, et al. (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality 18F-FDG PET/CT examinations". J. Nucl. Med. 46 (4): 608–13. PMID 15809483
	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.


	Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3		Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

imported>Psych202 at 21:07, 7 June 2013

2013-06-07T21:07:01Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:07, 7 June 2013
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	=References=		=References=
			Bailey, D.L; D.W. Townsend, P.E. Valk, M.N. Maisey (2005). Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-798-2.
	Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.		Tye, K. M., & Deisseroth, K. (2012). Optogenetic investigation of neural circuits underlying brain disease in animal models. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(4), 251-266.


	Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3		Huettel, S. A.; Song, A. W.; McCarthy, G. (2009), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (2 ed.), Massachusetts: Sinauer, ISBN 978-0-87893-286-3

imported>Psych202: /* Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation */

2013-06-07T21:05:13Z

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:05, 7 June 2013
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	'''Disadvantages'''		'''Disadvantages'''

	TMS has low spatial specificity and little is known about the mechanistic processes underlying TMS and its benefits.		TMS has low spatial specificity and little is known about the mechanistic processes underlying TMS and its benefits. Also TMS can cause seizures, although this is a rare occurrence (CITE 9).

	=Optogenetics=		=Optogenetics=

imported>Psych202: /* Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation */

2013-06-07T21:03:36Z

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:03, 7 June 2013
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	'''Overview '''		'''Overview '''

	Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to disrupt cognitive processing in normal human subjects in order to gain knowledge of the function of certain areas of the brain. A magnetic field, created by electromagnetic induction, is placed over an area of the scalp. This rapidly changing magnetic field causes activity or inactivity in the associated brain region creating a reversible 'lesion' in the subject's brain. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is the application of a series of TMS pulses and has been used clinically as a treatment for a number of psychiatric and neurological disorders, including but not limited to Parkinson's disease, depression, and ~~stroke~~.		Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to disrupt cognitive processing in normal human subjects in order to gain knowledge of the function of certain areas of the brain. A magnetic field, created by electromagnetic induction, is placed over an area of the scalp. This rapidly changing magnetic field causes activity or inactivity in the associated brain region creating a reversible 'lesion' in the subject's brain. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is the application of a series of TMS pulses and has been used clinically as a treatment for a number of psychiatric and neurological disorders, including but not limited to Parkinson's disease, depression, stroke, and chronic pain.

	'''Advantages'''		'''Advantages'''

	TMS is fully non-invasive and the stimulation of particular brain areas by TMS is associated with minimal discomfort.		TMS is fully non-invasive and the stimulation of particular brain areas by TMS is associated with minimal discomfort. TMS is also relatively inexpensive and simple to use.

	'''Disadvantages'''		'''Disadvantages'''

			TMS has low spatial specificity and little is known about the mechanistic processes underlying TMS and its benefits.

	=Optogenetics=		=Optogenetics=