Nociception and the Pain System - Revision history

imported>Psych202: /* Conclusion */

2013-06-02T00:59:18Z

Conclusion

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	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=
	The pain perception is a result of an intricate interaction between specialised sensory neurons and cortical somatosensory areas as well as the anterior cingulate cortex. Through this interaction the human body is able to perceive when a noxious stimulus intensity is present and to respond appropriately, physiologically and cognitively, to the situation. This response may range from physically evading the stimulus to controlling the perception of pain, although the degree to which this latter technique is effective is not well ~~establised~~.		The pain perception is a result of an intricate interaction between specialised sensory neurons and cortical somatosensory areas as well as the anterior cingulate cortex. Through this interaction the human body is able to perceive when a noxious stimulus intensity is present and to respond appropriately, physiologically and cognitively, to the situation. This response may range from physically evading the stimulus to controlling the perception of pain, although the degree to which this latter technique is effective is not well understood at the moment.

	=References=		=References=

imported>Psych202: /* Conclusion */

2013-06-02T00:58:35Z

Conclusion

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	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=
	The pain ~~system~~ is a result of an intricate interaction between specialised sensory neurons and cortical somatosensory areas as well as the anterior cingulate cortex. Through this interaction the human body is able to perceive when a noxious stimulus intensity is present and to respond appropriately, physiologically and cognitively, to the situation. This response may range from physically evading the stimulus to controlling the perception of pain, although the degree to which this latter technique is effective is not well establised.		The pain perception is a result of an intricate interaction between specialised sensory neurons and cortical somatosensory areas as well as the anterior cingulate cortex. Through this interaction the human body is able to perceive when a noxious stimulus intensity is present and to respond appropriately, physiologically and cognitively, to the situation. This response may range from physically evading the stimulus to controlling the perception of pain, although the degree to which this latter technique is effective is not well establised.

	=References=		=References=

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:58:12Z

Cognition and Nociception

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	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications particularly as the pain management produced by these rtfMRI methods may simply be a result in attention shifts away from the painful stimulus and into watching the rtfMRI response.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications particularly as the pain management produced by these rtfMRI methods may simply be a result of attention shifts away from the painful stimulus and into watching the rtfMRI response.

	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:57:42Z

Cognition and Nociception

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	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, ~~since~~ the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications particularly as the pain management produced by these rtfMRI methods may simply be a result in attention shifts away from the painful stimulus and into watching the rtfMRI response.

	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:54:21Z

Cognition and Nociception

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:54, 2 June 2013
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	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.

	=Conclusion=		=Conclusion=

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:53:38Z

Cognition and Nociception

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	Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.		Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.

	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:51:32Z

Cognition and Nociception

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:51, 2 June 2013
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	Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.		Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.

	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious ~~stimuli~~ is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.

imported>Psych202: /* Cognition and Nociception */

2013-06-02T00:50:40Z

Cognition and Nociception

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	=Cognition and Nociception=		=Cognition and Nociception=

	Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the somatosensory cortices ~~(as described above)~~, cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.		Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.

	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimuli is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimuli is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

imported>Psych202: /* Pain Thresholds */

2013-06-02T00:48:20Z

Pain Thresholds

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:48, 2 June 2013
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	The wide range of sound pressures and intensities illustrates that, although humans can perceive small changes in stimulus intensities, there are certain stimulus intensities which can be harmful to the human body. However, it is important to note the large distance between our hearing threshold (0 dB) and our threshold for pain (130 dB).		The wide range of sound pressures and intensities illustrates that, although humans can perceive small changes in stimulus intensities, there are certain stimulus intensities which can be harmful to the human body. However, it is important to note the large distance between our hearing threshold (0 dB) and our threshold for pain (130 dB).

	The same kind of computations can be done in other modalities, although since pain perception in areas such as temperature are dependent on the type of temperature exposure, e.g., hot climate vs. holding a hot ceramic plate vs. holding a hot aluminium plate, computing these curves requires more rigorous experimental testing. However, there are similarities between the modalities. For example, pain thresholds due to material temperature differences also seem to follow a roughly logarithmic curve<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[12]]]</sup>~~, although more experimentation is certainly needed.~~		The same kind of computations can be done in other modalities, although since pain perception in areas such as temperature are dependent on the type of temperature exposure, e.g., hot climate vs. holding a hot ceramic plate vs. holding a hot aluminium plate, computing these curves requires more rigorous experimental testing. However, there are similarities between the modalities. For example, pain thresholds due to material temperature differences also seem to follow a roughly logarithmic curve.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[12]]]</sup>

	=Cognition and Nociception=		=Cognition and Nociception=

imported>Psych202: /* Pain Thresholds */

2013-06-02T00:47:09Z

Pain Thresholds

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	[[Image:HumanRangeofHearingPressures.png\|400px\|center\|frame\|Figure 2: Human Hearing Range in N/m<sup>2</sup>.]]		[[Image:HumanRangeofHearingPressures.png\|400px\|center\|frame\|Figure 2: Human Hearing Range in N/m<sup>2</sup>.]]

	The wide range of sound pressures and intensities illustrates that, although humans can perceive small changes in stimulus intensities, there are certain stimulus intensities which can be harmful to the human body. However, it is important to note the large distance between our hearing threshold (dB) and our threshold for pain (dB).		The wide range of sound pressures and intensities illustrates that, although humans can perceive small changes in stimulus intensities, there are certain stimulus intensities which can be harmful to the human body. However, it is important to note the large distance between our hearing threshold (0 dB) and our threshold for pain (130 dB).

	The same kind of computations can be done in other modalities, although since pain perception in areas such as temperature are dependent on the type of temperature exposure, e.g., hot climate vs. holding a hot ceramic plate vs. holding a hot aluminium plate, computing these curves requires more rigorous experimental testing. However, there are similarities between the modalities. For example, pain thresholds due to material temperature differences also seem to follow a roughly logarithmic curve<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[12]]]</sup>, although more experimentation is certainly needed.		The same kind of computations can be done in other modalities, although since pain perception in areas such as temperature are dependent on the type of temperature exposure, e.g., hot climate vs. holding a hot ceramic plate vs. holding a hot aluminium plate, computing these curves requires more rigorous experimental testing. However, there are similarities between the modalities. For example, pain thresholds due to material temperature differences also seem to follow a roughly logarithmic curve<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[12]]]</sup>, although more experimentation is certainly needed.

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:53, 2 June 2013
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	Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.		Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.

	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:51, 2 June 2013
Line 197:		Line 197:
	Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.		Although the study of pain is mainly focused on the the physiological experience of pain, i.e., how do the body and the brain work together to detect and react to physical pain, human beings can also experience pain as a result of cognitive and emotional factors. The main difference between the experience of physically caused and cognitively caused pain is in the brain centres at which each of these is processed. While physical pain is processed at the [[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#Pathways_of_Nociception\|somatosensory cortices]], cognitive pain (i.e., non-physical pain) is processed primarily at the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with joint activation at the insula, thalamus, and pre-frontal cortex. <sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup><sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> The processing of pain at these regions has profound implications in the experience of cognitive pain perception as it makes cognitively-caused pain controllable and alarmingly subjective.

	Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious ~~stimuli~~ is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>		Studies into the underlying tenets of cognitive pain have found that the experience of cognitive pain is highly correlated with the anticipation of experiencing future pain.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> As a person ruminates more and more over a future experience of pain, the actual experience of pain once a noxious stimulus is presented increases considerably.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> In other words, as the duration of thinking about future pain increases so does the perceived magnitude of the pain stimulus increase once it is actually present. Furthermore, the magnitude of a pain stimulus is not only directly proportional to the duration of the pain anticipation period but also to the believed magnitude of future pain. That is, if person believes that the degree of painfulness of a future noxious stimulus will be high, then the experience of the noxious stimulus will be more painful than if the person had believed that the stimulus would not be very painful. However, this expectation of a future painful stimulus is not purely cognitive. The expectation and anticipation of a painful stimulus is positively correlated with activation in the ACC, where the greater the believed level of a future painful stimulus, the greater the activation at the ACC will be. The activation at the ACC is also accompanied by activation in the PFC, thalamus, insula, and cerebellum.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup>

	Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.		Due to cognitive nature of the perceived pain, human beings have been found to be able to control the degree of perceived pain by mentally training themselves to do so.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> As mentioned above one main factor used in controlling pain perception is the reduction of the expected magnitude of a future painful stimulus or the reduction of the expectation period, which precedes a painful stimulus.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[9]]]</sup> However, on the onset of a painful stimulus there exist three additional methods that have been found to reduce the degree of pain perceived. Given the ability to observe the cortical activation by means of a real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) measure, the degree of a pain produced by a noxious stimulus can be reduced by: shifiting attention from the location of the painful stimulus to another side of the body, by convincing oneself that the pain felt is a neutral sensory stimulus rather than a highly painful one (e.g., slightly warm plate instead of scorching hot plate), and/or by perceiving the stimulus (although still painful) to be of low pain intensity.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Through the use of these techniques in the presence of an rtfMRI measurement, the human perception of pain has been observed to be significantly less than when these techniques are not used.<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Furthermore, these voluntary and conscious pain modulation techniques have been found to be effective not only in cases of acute or short-term pain but also in chronic pain. However, since the same effects have not been observed in the absence of an rtfMRI measurement, which provides feedback to the person experiencing the noxious stimulus as to the degree of activation within pain centres in the brain (e.g., ACC).<sup>[[Nociception_and_the_Pain_System#References\|[8]]]</sup> Due to this, these early findings have questionable validity when it comes to real-life applications.