http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?action=history&feed=atom&title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory 2026-07-12T19:27:14Z Revision history for this page on the wiki MediaWiki 1.45.3 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13523&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T22:51:41Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 22:51, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l56">Line 56:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 56:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>   </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Areas for Further Study=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Areas for Further Study=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite recent advances and research on the role of astrocytes, much more works needs to be done in order to fully understand the function of astrocytes in learning and memory. A major challenge for this field is <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">to understand </del>how astrocytes communicate <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">to </del>each other and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">to </del>neurons during development in order to establish astrocytic and neuronal network structures. Learning more about the functions of each of the different types of astrocytes will also provide a better understanding of the morphology and functionality of astrocytes and their role in synaptic transmission, neural functioning, and other processes such as learning and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">member</del>. The recent studies are only the beginning to the research and investigation of this field.  </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite recent advances and research on the role of astrocytes, much more works needs to be done in order to fully understand the function of astrocytes in learning and memory. A major challenge for this field is <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">understanding </ins>how astrocytes communicate <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">with </ins>each other and <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">with </ins>neurons during development in order to establish astrocytic and neuronal network structures. Learning more about the functions of each of the different types of astrocytes will also provide a better understanding of the morphology and functionality of astrocytes and their role in synaptic transmission, neural functioning, and other processes such as learning and <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">memory</ins>. The recent studies are only the beginning to the research and investigation of this field.  </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=References=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=References=</div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13522&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T22:49:59Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 22:49, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l55">Line 55:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 55:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>To study the structural complexity and distinct features of human astrocytes, human glial progenitor cells (GPCs) were engrafted into immunodeficent mice to examine the properties of human glia. This resulted in a widespread integration of human glia in the brain of the mice. After the mice had matured, human cells had replaced a significant proportion of their forebrain glia. Due to the presence of human glia, LTP, learning, object location memory, and contextual and tone fear conditioning were all enhanced in the mice. The mice that were allografted with murine GPCs displayed no improvement in LTP or learning. The study demonstrates that human astrocytes generated in mice brains maintain their complex morphology and Ca2+ wave characteristics typical in the human brain. These finding show that human glia enhances learning in mice. Furthermore, it suggests that aspects human cognition and the evolution of human neural processing may be a reflection of astrocytic evolution.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[3]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>To study the structural complexity and distinct features of human astrocytes, human glial progenitor cells (GPCs) were engrafted into immunodeficent mice to examine the properties of human glia. This resulted in a widespread integration of human glia in the brain of the mice. After the mice had matured, human cells had replaced a significant proportion of their forebrain glia. Due to the presence of human glia, LTP, learning, object location memory, and contextual and tone fear conditioning were all enhanced in the mice. The mice that were allografted with murine GPCs displayed no improvement in LTP or learning. The study demonstrates that human astrocytes generated in mice brains maintain their complex morphology and Ca2+ wave characteristics typical in the human brain. These finding show that human glia enhances learning in mice. Furthermore, it suggests that aspects human cognition and the evolution of human neural processing may be a reflection of astrocytic evolution.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[3]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>   </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Further <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Considerations</del>=</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Areas for </ins>Further <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Study</ins>=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite recent advances and research on the role of astrocytes, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">many important questions remain unanswered. Much </del>more <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">work remains </del>to be done in order to fully understand the function of astrocytes in learning and memory. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">However, </del>astrocytes <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">have evolved from assuming </del>the role as <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">a supportive cell in </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">brain </del>to <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">an essential facilitator </del>of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">neural activity and brain function</del>.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Despite recent advances and research on the role of astrocytes, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">much </ins>more <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">works needs </ins>to be done in order to fully understand the function of astrocytes in learning and memory. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">A major challenge for this field is to understand how astrocytes communicate to each other and to neurons during development in order to establish astrocytic and neuronal network structures. Learning more about the functions of each of the different types of </ins>astrocytes <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">will also provide a better understanding of </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">morphology and functionality of astrocytes and their </ins>role <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">in synaptic transmission, neural functioning, and other processes such </ins>as <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">learning and member. The recent studies are only </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">beginning </ins>to <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the research and investigation </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">this field</ins>.  </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=References=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=References=</div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13521&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T22:35:44Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 22:35, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l6">Line 6:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 6:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume.<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt; </del>Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">(3)</del>. Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume. Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes. Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis.  </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain. Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity.<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt; </del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain. Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity.</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As the knowledge of the morphology and functionality of astrocytes has expanded, researchers have acknowledged that the size, complexity, and capabilities of astrocytes have been significantly underestimated. Furthermore, studies evaluating the similarities and differences between human astrocytes and those of experimental animals have exposed the potential importance of astrocyte function in complex brain processing such as learning and memory <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">(NIH)</del>. Studying the differences between the human brain and those of other mammals is important for understanding the unique computational power of the human brain. &lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">7</del>]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As the knowledge of the morphology and functionality of astrocytes has expanded, researchers have acknowledged that the size, complexity, and capabilities of astrocytes have been significantly underestimated. Furthermore, studies evaluating the similarities and differences between human astrocytes and those of experimental animals have exposed the potential importance of astrocyte function in complex brain processing such as learning and memory. Studying the differences between the human brain and those of other mammals is important for understanding the unique computational power of the human brain.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">9</ins>]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Learning at the Cellular Level=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Learning at the Cellular Level=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Learning occurs when neurons grow new connections or strengthen existing synapses. Strengthening synapses is fundamental to learning new information. When incoming information reaches the synapse, neurotransmitters are released and bind to receptors in the nerve cell. This process triggers neurons to pass on the information to the next cell. Most traditional studies for the neural bases of learning and memory focus on how neurons transmit information, and how they change to reflect learning. However, recent studies suggest that glia, especially astrocytes, may directly contribute to certain learning mechanisms.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">7</del>]]]&lt;/sup&gt;  </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Learning occurs when neurons grow new connections or strengthen existing synapses. Strengthening synapses is fundamental to learning new information. When incoming information reaches the synapse, neurotransmitters are released and bind to receptors in the nerve cell. This process triggers neurons to pass on the information to the next cell. Most traditional studies for the neural bases of learning and memory focus on how neurons transmit information, and how they change to reflect learning. However, recent studies suggest that glia, especially astrocytes, may directly contribute to certain learning mechanisms.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1</ins>]]]&lt;/sup&gt;  </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Functions of Astrocytes=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Functions of Astrocytes=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Research on new functions of astrocytes has emerged in recent years. New discovers have shown that astrocytes are involved in the regulation of blood flow, the growth of stem cells, as well as synaptic transmission. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[]]]&lt;/sup&gt; </del>Although astrocytes are electrically non-excitable cells, they still play a role in neural signaling. Recent studies have shown that communication exists between glia and neurons at the synapse. Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters that cause Ca2+ concentration to increase in surrounding glia. Activated astrocytes respond to surrounding neuron activity and the increase in Ca2+ concentration by releasing glutamate, serine and ATP, and other gliotransmitters.<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[6]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</del>In turn, these gliotransmitters respond by enhancing or depressing the release of more neurotransmitters in the presynaptic terminal. Furthermore, transmitters released from glia can directly stimulate postsynaptic neurons by producing excitatory or inhibitory responses. By releasing transmitters, activated through the increase of Ca2+ concentrations, astrocytes modulate the activity of both glial and neuronal neighboring cells. &lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Research on new functions of astrocytes has emerged in recent years. New discovers have shown that astrocytes are involved in the regulation of blood flow, the growth of stem cells, as well as synaptic transmission. Although astrocytes are electrically non-excitable cells, they still play a role in neural signaling. Recent studies have shown that communication exists between glia and neurons at the synapse. Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters that cause Ca2+ concentration to increase in surrounding glia. Activated astrocytes respond to surrounding neuron activity and the increase in Ca2+ concentration by releasing glutamate, serine and ATP, and other gliotransmitters. In turn, these gliotransmitters respond by enhancing or depressing the release of more neurotransmitters in the presynaptic terminal. Furthermore, transmitters released from glia can directly stimulate postsynaptic neurons by producing excitatory or inhibitory responses. By releasing transmitters, activated through the increase of Ca2+ concentrations, astrocytes modulate the activity of both glial and neuronal neighboring cells.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Recent Studies===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Recent Studies===</div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13520&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T22:29:38Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 22:29, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l32">Line 32:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 32:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Unique Features of Human Astrocytes=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Unique Features of Human Astrocytes=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image: 1.jpg|thumb|450px|The size of astrocytes increases with increasing complexity of brain function.]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image: 1.jpg|thumb|450px|The size of astrocytes increases with increasing complexity of brain function.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[4]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</ins>]]</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>One of the most distinct aspects of the human brain is the complexity and diversity of cortical astrocytes. Human astrocytes are larger, more complex, and more abundant compared to the astrocytes of infaprimate mammals. Because of the significant differences in astrocytes between humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents, researchers propose that the complexity in the structure and function of astrocytes has evolved with the evolution of the human cortical. The evolution of astrocytes reflects their enhanced roles in synaptic modulation and cortical circuitry.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[8,9]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>One of the most distinct aspects of the human brain is the complexity and diversity of cortical astrocytes. Human astrocytes are larger, more complex, and more abundant compared to the astrocytes of infaprimate mammals. Because of the significant differences in astrocytes between humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents, researchers propose that the complexity in the structure and function of astrocytes has evolved with the evolution of the human cortical. The evolution of astrocytes reflects their enhanced roles in synaptic modulation and cortical circuitry.&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[8,9]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Diversity of Human Astrocytes===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Diversity of Human Astrocytes===</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Human cortical astrocytes have high cortical glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive (GAFP+) expression. At least four major morphologic subclasses of GAFP+ immunoreactive cells have been found in the adult human temporal lobe. The four subclasses include interlaminar, protoplasmic, polarized, and fibrous astrocytes. Chimpanzees also have four subclasses of GAFP+ cells, however, these cells are much less complex than those in the human brain. The cortex of rhesus macaque and squirrel monkeys contain three subtypes of astrocytes, and the cortex of rodents contains only two (protoplasmic and fibrous). &lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[8<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">,9</del>]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Human cortical astrocytes have high cortical glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive (GAFP+) expression. At least four major morphologic subclasses of GAFP+ immunoreactive cells have been found in the adult human temporal lobe. The four subclasses include interlaminar, protoplasmic, polarized, and fibrous astrocytes. Chimpanzees also have four subclasses of GAFP+ cells, however, these cells are much less complex than those in the human brain. The cortex of rhesus macaque and squirrel monkeys contain three subtypes of astrocytes, and the cortex of rodents contains only two (protoplasmic and fibrous).&lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory#References|[8]]]&lt;/sup&gt;   </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=====Protoplasmic Astrocytes=====  </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=====Protoplasmic Astrocytes=====  </div></td></tr> </table>

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imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13517&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T21:42:32Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:42, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l6">Line 6:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 6:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;sup&gt;[[<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory</del>#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;sup&gt;[[<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory</ins>#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13516&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T21:41:05Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:41, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l6">Line 6:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 6:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">/</del>sup&gt; [[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]] &lt;/sup&gt;</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;sup&gt;[[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13515&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T21:38:47Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:38, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l6">Line 6:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 6:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;/sup&gt;[[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis. &lt;/sup&gt; [[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]] &lt;/sup&gt;</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202 http://vista.su.domains/psych221wiki/index.php?title=Role_of_Astrocytes_in_Learning_and_Memory&diff=13514&oldid=prev 2013-06-08T21:37:48Z

<p></p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:37, 8 June 2013</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l6">Line 6:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 6:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>=Description=</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis [[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">. </del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The astrocyte is a ubiquitous type of glial cell and the most abundant cell in the human brain, greatly outnumbering neurons and occupying 20%-50% of brain volume (10). Astrocytes are found surrounding neurons and synapses and are recognized by their star-shaped appearance. They are divided into different types, including protoplasmic astrocytes, interlaminar astrocytes, polarized astrocytes, and fibrous astrocytes (3). Astrocytes have several essential functions in the Central Nervous System, such as blood flow regulation, energy metabolism, ion and water homeostasis, immune defense, neurotransmission, and adult neurogenesis<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">. &lt;/sup&gt;</ins>[[Role_of_astrocytes_in_learning_and_memory#References|[7]]]&lt;/sup&gt;</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For many years, astrocytes were thought to only provide support to electrically active neurons involved in information processing in the brain (3). Because astrocytes cannot generate electrical signals, it was assumed that they did not have an active role in neural signaling. However, in the past few decades, an increase in interest and research of these cells has emerged. Researchers have discovered the incredible morphologic and functional diversity of astrocytes, uncovered several functions of astrocytes in neural signaling, and have a better understanding of their role in synapse formation, maturation, efficacy, and plasticity (Freeman).  </div></td></tr> </table>

imported>Psych202